STATE EXAM PROGRAM
Problems of periodization of social work. Periodization of social work abroad: Archaic period of charity (before the formation of the first slave states at the end of the 3rd - beginning of the 2nd millennium BC). Philanthropic period (up to IV-V centuries AD). The period of public (communal, church) charity (up to the 16th century). The period of state charity (until the turn of the 19th – 20th centuries). The period of social work (continuing to the present).
Answer:
Archaic period (before the formation of the Kiev principality and the baptism of Rus in the 9th-10th centuries).
Tribal and communal forms of assistance and mutual assistance among the Slavs before the X to help members of their community. The most common forms of assistance to poor fellow villagers were feeding at home (those who were being taken care of spent the whole day in one house, moving on to the next in another) and almsgiving (but in the villages there was little money and they served food and clothing most of all).
The period of public (communal, church) charity (10th - early 16th centuries). It is characterized by the absence of a state system of social assistance to the population. The predominance of church charity. The most common form of help is charity. Uncontrolled begging leads to the formation of professional begging.
The period of church and state charity (XVI - XVII centuries). Gradually, the first closed institutions began to form, the regulation of work with the beggar was laid.
The period of state charity (XVIII - early XX centuries). Formation of a system of state social assistance to the population. The system of state charity was established during the reign of Peter 1. In the second half of the 18th century, caring for socially unprotected categories of the population was recognized as an indispensable duty of the state. An increase in the public activity of citizens was also facilitated by the "City Regulation" adopted in 1785. It established such estates as the clergy, merchants, bourgeoisie and peasantry, which were supposed to show concern for the disabled representatives of their class. the rapid growth of capitalism determines the development of the charity of merchants and entrepreneurs. Explosive growth of charitable motives. At this time, the transition from voluntary to professional assistance is also formalized. The first courses in public charity are being opened, and international relations are being established.
The period of social planning (1917-1991). There is a reform of the charity system. Some forms of private and public charity were taken over by the social security system, others were forgotten (no social work with prisoners was carried out at all). The Ministry of Social Security pursued a centralized policy in the field of pensions, support for disabled people, single and large mothers, and children without parents. During this period, it was believed that there were no parasites or beggars in the country.
The period of social work (since the 1990s). The destruction of established social and economic ties, price liberalization, unemployment lead to an aggravation of social problems. Short-term programs appear: cash subsidies to the poor, humanitarian aid. A system of assistance to those in need is being formed, but its work is not debugged and is not clear to many. Therefore, it is important to study how these problems were solved in our country, as well as in other countries.
Christianization of Rus in 988 (Saint Vladimir).
It is sometimes said that baptism took place in 980. because of the chronology.
Peculiarities:
1) Christianity came later than in other countries. There was a clash of two beliefs, the interpenetration of Christianity into paganism. Russian Orthodoxy contains two foundations: belief in God and superstition.
Before the reforms of Peter 1, a man without a beard is a devil. Boris Godunov and False Dmitry 1 were without a beard.
In the 18th century, superstitions disappear and the system swayed, but state power - the synod - comes to replace it. Orthodoxy is being reborn.
2) the new belief is perceived at the level of emotions, and not at the level of reason. Attracts with beauty, and not a peculiarity of the worldview. Lush decorations, the beauty of the acts of God, the giving of alms.
Begging is becoming a professional occupation.
996, a law is issued - 1 document reflecting the ideas of social assistance "Charter of Prince Vladimir 1". Where are 4 categories of those in need distinguished: widows, beggars, wanderers (wandering monks), cripples (mentally ill).
The duty to help them is entrusted to the church, the maintenance of those in need is part of the tithe. Public charity can be attributed to a special system of princely power, based on love of poverty: alms, feeding in the prince's court, delivering food.
Features: not state, but private (personal desires) assistance; lack of government assistance. Vladimir Monomakh tried to turn the right to help those in need into the duty of a prince. He creates the image of an ideal ruler as a protector of the weak and the poor.
Duties of the prince were introduced: repentance, tears, compassion, distribution of alms. 2 and 3 must be combined.
THEN. no state aid / charity system has been established.
In 1132. Russia entered into feudal fragmentation.
The phenomenon of Russian selfless devotion.
In 11-12c, a special system of social assistance included 2 components: selflessness and begging.
Asceticism from the word feat, feat to one's neighbor. Love for one's neighbor turns into an exploit of love for one's neighbor. All or nothing is a maximalist formula.
Begging created a favorable ground for the development of a stratum of professional beggars. In Europe, God’s beggars live near monasteries. The beggar is the best worshiper (church brothers, peace worshipers). They have a special form of clothing, a shirt that bare the throat like Jesus'. They lived in mobs (artels).
1. Palace (honor among the princes),
2. Yard, monastery (stable income),
3. Cemetery, strolling (no permanent place),
4. Loungers (lying in public places).
There are many beggars, the attitude towards them is changing. There is a formalization of charity, in two forms:
1. penny feed (just to throw);
2. church alms.
There were no laws on the provision of social assistance.
Mongol rule upset the government. The Stoglavy Cathedral of 1551 constructs a system of aid from the church and from the state. The beggars are divided into 3 categories: disabled, able-bodied, healthy. A census of beggars in cities has been carried out, a church type of social assistance is being formed, and health problems are discussed at the Stoglav Cathedral. The problem of drunkenness is highlighted. But the decisions of the Stoglava Cathedral remain on paper. For the first time, the state began to pay attention to social assistance in the 17th century.
Reasons: the great pestilence of 1601-1603, the prohibition of free trade in bread, the fight against speculation, the prohibition of distilling and brewing, public works were organized. Skudelnitsa's charities appear in the capital. Parishes played a special role in helping.
In the mid-17th century, the state drew attention to the problems of social assistance. The years of the reign of Peter I were marked by a step forward in the implementation of the idea of social charity, he consistently took measures to increase the role of the state in this area of public life, sought to put institutions of all types of charity under his control. The state began to rule the church. All the income of the monasteries was spent on giving the monks their money and food, and the rest was used to provide for the poor and the elderly in almshouses and on benefits to monasteries that did not have estates and received subsidies from the state. Peter 1 turned some of the monasteries into almshouses and they became an integral part of a network of "closed" charitable institutions, while other monasteries are required to accept a certain number of the sick, the elderly and the needy. Monasteries were especially actively used after the Northern War for the care of retired wounded and sick officers and soldiers.
Immediately after the death of Peter, there was a period of legislative calm. His closest successors care little about the full implementation of charity measures in their entirety and only repeat and reinforce the decrees on cruel punishments of the poor.
The successor of the reforms was Ekaterina II, who created a whole system of specialized institutions called "Orders of Public Charity" in 1975.
The care and supervision of the establishment and solid foundation is entrusted:
1) People's schools.
2) Establishment and supervision of orphanages for the care and upbringing of orphans left without food after their parents.
3) Establishment and supervision of hospitals for the treatment of the sick.
4) Establishment and supervision of almshouses for the poor, crippled, elderly people who have no food.
5) Establishment and supervision of a special home for the terminally ill who have no food.
6) Establishment and supervision of an insane asylum.
7) Establishment and supervision of workhouses for both sexes.
8) Strait houses.
Thus, the legislation of Catherine II turned the matter of charity from the social principle, where zemstvo people provided assistance to the poor at public funds, towards centralization on a state bureaucratic basis, where police officers and orders were involved in charity of the poor.
During the reign of Nicholas 1 - the bureaucratization of state life, hypertrophied centralism of government, the suppression of all sprouts of public initiative - all this could not but be accompanied by an ever-increasing decline in the role of monasteries and churches in the field of charity. Almost until the 60s. In the 19th century, the church and monastery sector of charity was in a state of crisis.
At the beginning of the 2nd half. In the 19th century, the issue of reorganizing social assistance to the needy became extremely acute. The previous experience of organizing a centralized state charity has shown its limitations. The Church was given the opportunity to develop a long tradition of charity for those in need in monastic and parish almshouses, hospitals, hospitals.
The history of the charity of the Orthodox Church is inextricably linked with the functioning of the church parish. Parish trusteeships: social assistance in the form of cash benefits, they supported almshouses, shelters, and other institutions; there were parish schools. They supported the disabled, the elderly, and children.
In all large cities in 1915, refugee care committees were established. Creation and maintenance of hospitals for wounded soldiers. The war aggravated the problem of disability in their life arrangement and patronage (nursing mercy).
After the turning point in the political events of October 1917, which led to the establishment of Soviet power, the new government immediately began implementing the insurance program. It provided for:
1) the extension of insurance to all workers without exception, as well as the urban and rural poor.
2) the extension of insurance to cover all types of disability, namely in cases of illness, injury, disability, old age, maternity, widowhood and orphanhood, as well as unemployment.
3) the imposition of all insurance costs entirely on entrepreneurs.
4) reimbursement of at least full earnings in the event of disability and unemployment.
5) full self-government of the insured in all insurance organizations.
The decree "On increasing pensions" - for all pensioners in accidents, the pension was increased by 100% at the expense of the pension fund.
Insurance funds were financed by insurance premiums of enterprises and persons who used hired labor, with the exemption of the insured from making any contributions.
Social security appeared during the civil war - it was selective and extended only to the socially poorly protected segments of the population.
The following factors indicate serious social tension in post-Soviet Russia:
1.high level of poverty (30% - live below the subsistence minimum.)
2.the death rate has exceeded the birth rate
3. the number of orphans and children born out of wedlock is increasing.
4. 4 million abortions a year.
5. the problem of child disability, the problem of the criminalization of adolescents.
In 1991, the position of "HR specialist" was introduced
Social work has become an integral part of social scientific thought and social practice relatively recently - a little over a hundred years. Its formation, institutionalization, gaining social status took place in difficult conditions of constant struggle of ideas, concepts, paradigms. And today, not all questions of its theory and practice have been resolved. By no means all of the problems associated with its philosophical, sociological, political science understanding has formed a unity of views. Rather, on the contrary, the more social work gains momentum, the more diversity in approaches to it.
Social work has become a phenomenon of modern times, it has developed its own problem area, intersecting, and sometimes wedging into various fields of scientific knowledge, and the most diverse social practice.
Versatility and multifunctionality social work is the main obstacle in solving many theoretical and methodological problems associated with the role and place of social work in the system of social scientific knowledge.
Since neither science nor social practice has a single point of view regarding the phenomenon of social work, we will try to combine its various definitions.
Firstly, social work should be considered as a professional activity; Secondly, as a branch of social sciences and, third, as an academic discipline in the system of higher and secondary specialized education.
According to AA Kozlov, social work as a practical professional activity contains an internal dialectical contradiction. On the one hand, it is designed to protect the interests of a specific person, an individual individual, based on its value orientation towards the autonomy and self-sufficiency of the individual, towards the protection of his honor and dignity as a bio-psychosocial being, and on the other hand, social work, which is why it is called social focused on meeting the needs of society, proceeds from the interests of society as a whole, while combining both state interests, the interests of the ruling classes, and the interests of civil society.
Therefore, proceeding from the practical orientation of social work in the first part of its dichotomous unity, it is possible to set as a starting position the social needs of a person, one of the qualitative characteristics of which is the need for mutual assistance inherent in a person, the need to help other people in a difficult life situation. However, if you follow this path, many questions of the theory of social work in its connection with the second part of the dichotomy, i.e. with social need, with its place and role in society, will remain as if on the sidelines, and thus it will be difficult to find a connection and place of social work in social scientific thought and social practice.
In an anthropological sense, social work is a meaningful attempt to improve the living conditions of people. Any scientific understanding of the problem is associated with a theoretical analysis of a person's place in society, including the space-time vector, i.e. the social position of a person at a certain historical stage in the development of society itself.
In this case, we can talk either about parallel or distorted development of both a person and society. From the point of view of the development of social thought, this analysis always depends on two phenomena. One of them is the surge of scientific research about society at the end of the 18th century. and the second is the application of the results of these studies in practice and the possibility of predicting social changes, i.e. scientific analysis of society itself and its problems, on the one hand, and social actions, on the other.
As the starting point for the analysis of the development of scientific thought in social work, foreign scientists offer two main ideas: the idea of social progress and the idea of a person's need to create good, helping his neighbor, and the development of this quality along the space-time vector. In the development of scientific thought in the field of social work, there are two trends, which can be denoted as: "from theory to practice" and "from practice to theory".
The research field of social work includes, first of all, the concept of a social problem. Swedish scholars Lindholm, Askeland and Berglind show that in order to find the genesis of ideas in the field of social work, it is necessary to differentiate the various aspects of social work. This differentiation can be represented by approaches to social work as to practical knowledge, to theoretical knowledge with a practical orientation and as a pure science.
As an agent of social change, social work is aimed at harmonizing the individual and social being of a person in his systemic connections with society, changing the undesirable in social relations and social structure to the desired, i.e. eliminate, if possible, what is usually called social problem.
The theory of social work has common boundaries in the study of social problems with sociology, socio-philosophical anthropology, social psychology, political anthropology, political science and a number of other social sciences with which there are points of contact.
Common to all these disciplines is the study of social problems as such and on the basis of theoretical calculations, based on their arsenal of specific methods, the formation of recommendations for the implementation of social changes.
Professor of the University of Gothenburg (Sweden) Harold Svedne - "patriarch" of social work in Europe, who developed the concept of social work as a branch of scientific knowledge, in 1983, for the first time in the history of the theory of social work, developed typology of the development of scientific thought in the field of social work, using several dimensions for this: idealism and empiricism, revolution and reform, right and left social policy (right and left political forces). According to the author, in order to consider the typology of ideas in social work, it is necessary to take as a basis the presence of dichotomies of two orders. The first implies the presence of social problems - social changes carried out by the government, the second - changes in the subjective-object order.
- 1) political action;
- 2) public education;
- 3) social work;
- 4) research work;
- 5) philanthropic social work;
- 6) expert work;
- 7) reformist work;
- 8) social development.
Traditions consistent with the mind of the observer include hermeneutics, critical analysis, empirical logistics, and linguistic analysis.
On a kind of "tree of ideas" by Svedner are the names of more than 60 scientists and practitioners. According to Swedner, expressed later, the list of authors-scientists - generators of ideas should be replenished with such names as V.I. approaches to social work. In addition, authors who developed theoretical and practical approaches to changes at the individual, family or group levels, psychodynamic, sociodramatic approaches that used group psychotherapy, family therapy, and individual psychosocial practice did not get on his “tree of ideas”. This statement of the author of the analysis, however, is only partly true, since Swedner's typology details the views of Mary Richmond, a theoretician and practical social worker who developed a methodology of social work at the individual-personal and semisyno-group levels.
Nicolaus Copernicus was one of the first to be represented on the Svedner tree of ideas. Svedner, however, later made a reservation that even before Copernicus, there were different views on social problems and ways of solving them in Ancient Egypt, Ancient China and Ancient Greece... It was in these ancient civilizations that the basic principles of social policy and social assistance were laid, which served as the basis for the formation of later, after many centuries, scientific concepts of social work.
According to the Swedish researcher H. Soydan, the medieval study of the typology of ideas in the field of social work is of particular interest to us, since it allows us to assume that the historical roots of social work and social policy can be discovered by scientists in the study of stages earlier than the era of industrial capital development of human society. Swedner's approach reveals the possibilities of understanding the origins of social work as a retrospective of a person's desire to provide assistance, the evolution of mutual assistance and human social stability.
In modern social science, it is generally accepted that the genesis of modern social sciences is primarily associated with a sociological analysis carried out by a number of scientists who are now recognized as classics of social scientific thought, who made a real breakthrough in the study of society in the 18th – 19th centuries. Their work included the identification of social connections, driving forces, the search for the relationship between various elements of the social structure, its dysfunctions, giving rise to social problems, etc. The need to expand the scope of application of sociological analysis, caused by the complication of both the social system itself and the relationship between man and society , revealed the narrowness of the framework of sociology itself, as a science of society in the understanding of its creators - Augusto Comte and Herbert Spencer, and led to the emergence of new types of specific conceptual apparatus. The new toolkit gradually took shape in separate special disciplines within the social sciences, first applied, and then completely independent. One of these scientific disciplines later became social work.
Most social scientists (Aron, Zeitlin) argue that the genesis of the scientific analysis of society should be sought in the works of French philosophers of the Enlightenment. However, the Swedish sociologist Ericsson, for example, partly sharing these views, believes that the genesis of scientific analysis of society is primarily associated with such names as Adam Ferguson, Adam Smith and John Milliard and is subject to revolutionary metamorphosis. These authors demonstrated to the scientific community the possibility of historical analysis of society and showed the mechanisms of social change. Therefore, they can be considered the founders of the theory and practice of actions aimed at accomplishing social transformations based on scientific analysis.
It should be noted that in reality these thinkers did not deal with specific problems of scientific forecasting of the socio-economic development of society. Theoretical knowledge had to wait another century to combine the scientific analysis of society with concrete actions aimed at transforming it.
Since the purpose of social work as a practical activity is to resolve social problems, then social work can be viewed from the point of view the law of progression formulated by Adam Ferguson.
In accordance with this law, a person is inherently inherent in the desire to constantly improve the conditions of his life. Based on this basic premise, it can be argued that social work is based on such a person's inherent quality as social mobility, which expresses his social nature. Here we are talking about a person's need for changes in living conditions from bad to better, which is constantly increasing with the progressive development of society itself.
Another parallel can be drawn between the views of Scottish philosophers and modern ideas about social work. It is also associated with the analysis of human nature, the search for his essence. Adam Smith, for example, speaking about human nature, considers the concept of "sympathy" to be characteristic of relations between people, which, as Soidan pointed out when analyzing Adam Smith's concepts, does not exclude the empathic level, which, in turn, is a fundamental, basic method in modern social work when working with an individual and a group.
Almost all researchers were aware of the need for a scientific understanding of existing social problems for the subsequent reform of social relations on the basis of this knowledge. So, during the period of the Great French Revolution, the social sciences arose, setting the task of implementing social changes. The work of social scientists belongs to the same period, whose works formed the basis of practically all social sciences, including social work (Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier, etc.).
In the 1960s. a new approach to understanding social work as direct practice... An increasing number of researchers have come to understand social work as two-way communication in the interactions of the social worker and the client. This led to the gradual erasure of the stereotype of the client as an object of action. An increasing number of social workers began to understand their work as a two-way communication when interacting with a client, as an equal participant in the process of change.
According to Ericsson, social science as the activity of a carrier or carriers of thought exists where a group of people, using theoretical views on the future development of society, seeks to accelerate the implementation of social changes in the desired direction. This means that sociology, as the activity of the bearer of ideas, includes three autonomous, but closely related elements: the theory of society and its history, the program for transforming society from an unsatisfactory state in the present to a better one in the future, and a group of people striving to make these changes. ...
Social work, which has as its ultimate goal the harmonization of social relations, and, above all, the relationship between man and society, is built on the same three premises. This will give us the opportunity to assert that when analyzing the relationship between sociology as a science and as a carrier of activity and social work as an action aimed at implementing social changes, a general subject field is clearly traced, including research work, as well as theoretical constructions based on socio-philosophical views.
Another direction in the study of the genesis of scientific thought in social work is designated as "from practice to theory"... It has rather strong roots in the system of social sciences. Indeed, it is logical to assume that it is the practice, the activity aimed at implementing social reforms that is primary and serves as the basis for awakening scientific thinking.
Within the framework of this direction, social work is mainly reduced to practical activities, the purpose of which is to provide assistance to people facing social problems. This direction is more anthropological from a scientific point of view and "fits" with socio-philosophical and cultural-historical anthropology. In theoretical terms, the analysis of social work in the framework of this direction of scientific thought is associated with the problem sociality human and the phenomenon of mutual assistance and social support. Nevertheless, social stability as an anthropological category is impossible outside the study of the essence of human society, i.e. outside sociology.
Within the framework of socio-philosophical, cultural and political anthropology, attempts have been made to investigate the problem of social responsibility of the individual in order to substantiate the thesis that a person is inherently inherent in the desire to come to the aid of another person. This quality of the individual, according to John Asplund, is usually denoted by the concept of sociability. Social work as a practical activity and an academic discipline in the analysis of human nature uses this concept as a basic one.
Within the framework of the direction of development of social work, designated as "from practice to theory", two other directions began to develop in parallel, two concepts, opposing each other in understanding the causes of social problems and social evil. This process was typical both for the United States and for a number of European countries, especially for Great Britain, the Netherlands, and Germany. It should be noted, however, that the development of social work on both continents stimulated each other.
The process of the formation of social work as professional activity took place in the United States, where, after the Civil War, the question of custody of the poor, mentally disabled and convicted of offenses arose sharply. These categories of citizens came under the guardianship and protection of state administrations, and then the State Councils for Charity, Mental Health and Penitentiaries. Volunteer organizations and childcare agencies have emerged in the public sector.
American researchers Hermein and Gitterman, examining the history of social work, drew attention to the fact that it was not so much organizational problems as ideological conflicts that hindered the process of establishing and acquiring the professional status of social work. Social work was originally characterized by the presence of confrontation between different views and concepts, mutually exclusive. And within the framework of each ideological trend, among which the most powerful were the conservative and liberal, there were different ideas and trends. The main contradiction was the attitude towards the nature of social problems and their root causes, which some saw in a person, and others in society.
In the 80s. XIX century. two professional organizations arose. One of them, a charity, was organized in Buffalo in 1887, and the other - the Neighbors (Settlers) Guild - in 1886 in New York. Both developed rapidly and drew their ideological views from the traditions of Victorian England. In doing one thing, the organizations used different methods of work. They attracted educated people from the upper and middle strata of the population. Both movements were close to the church. Most of their participants were Protestant, but there were also Catholics and later Jews among them. Differences in ideological views and methods of work negatively affected the development of social work, but they could not resist the rapid flow of the very process of the formation of social work as a practical activity. Social work met the requirements of the time, its appearance on the arena of social life was predetermined by social need. The pioneers of these movements were Jane Adams and Mary Richmond. Jane Adams and volunteers who sympathized with her ideas moved to the neighborhoods of the poor and began to live next to people in need of help. The main idea of the Settlement Movement (Settlements) was to recognize that the environment is sick, that it is necessary to change it in order to end the misery and poverty of people.
Another movement, the Philanthropy Movement, led by Mary Richmond, did not advocate social reform directly. Its ideological basis was the recognition that the cause of poverty and social problems of a person lies in himself.
Common to these movements was their practical fundamental principle: in this case, the paramount importance belonged to practice, and not the scientific justification of social work. Naturally, this practice, despite its purely pragmatic nature, was based on a certain understanding of the nature and essence of social problems, as well as on the conviction that any evil must be combated. Both movements arose to take practical action in the interests of disadvantaged people. They were not associated with established scientific trends or socio-philosophical teachings. Only after a lapse of several decades, practical social workers, as they began to call themselves, came to the conclusion about the need to obtain systematic scientific knowledge, which should have formed the basis of their practical actions. The realization of the importance of scientific knowledge for practice came earlier to D. Adams than to M. Richmond, although it was M. Richmond who became the generally recognized "classic" of the theory and methodology of social work, having published his famous book "Social Diagnosis" in 1917.
Characteristically, the Settler Movement immediately linked its activities with educational centers. There were constant contacts between D. Adams and her colleagues with many scientists specializing in the field of social sciences. These contacts and the desire to lay a scientific foundation for practical action resulted in the creation of the Chicago School of Citizenship and Philanthropy, which in 1920 became the School of Social Administration at the University of Chicago.
M. Richmond had a different approach to the spider. In her quest to provide a methodological basis for social work at the individual-personal level through vocational training, she opposed the existing practice of university education, believing that university training associated with the need to study a large number scientific disciplines and various scientific schools, can undermine the inherent value basis of social workers' involvement in charity, undermine their faith in selflessness. She advocated the creation of a system independent higher education schools of social work. Through her efforts, the New York School of Philanthropy was created, later renamed the New York School of Social Work. And only in 1940 this school became part of Columbia University.
In order to outline the paradigm framework of ideas in social work, which occupies a certain place in the system of social sciences, it is necessary to define the problematic of paradigmality.
The first variable of paradigms is the dichotomous unity of theory and practice in the context of the history of the development of scientific thought. Within the framework of this unity, there are two main directions "from theory to practice" and "from practice to theory".
The second group of variables is related to the nature of social problems. In the history of the development of scientific thought, this paradigm also includes two main directions associated with determining the root cause of a social problem and answering the question: who needs to be treated - society or a person?
The process of interpenetration of two groups of variables, in all likelihood, is the dialectical unity of opposites in scientific thought in social work, as a branch of scientific knowledge (Table 1).
"Window" 1 in Table 1 characterizes the direction "from theory to practice", which is characterized by an understanding of society as the root cause of social problems. Social science is an active agent here. In this regard, sensimonism and Marxism can serve as historical examples in science and social practice, and in social work - radical models based on these theories (Marxist, feminist).
Table 1
Dialectical unity of the opposites of scientific thought in social work
"Window" 2 is at the intersection of the direction "from theory to practice" and the direction of scientific thought, which sees the root cause of social problems in the individual. In social work, this paradigm includes various models of psychodynamic orientation. In scientific thought of the XX century. This direction was largely influenced by the theory and practice of psychoanalysis of Z. Freud, as well as I. Pavlov's discoveries in the field of human higher nervous activity, and the theory of the practice of social work, especially at the individual-personal level, was partly influenced by the ideas of M. Richmond ...
"Window" 3 characterizes the direction "from practice to theory" combined with the idea that the cause of social problems lies in the social structure. In the history of social work, a striking example of this trend is the activities of D. Adams and the Settlers Society.
"Window" 4 is a direction "from practice to theory", but with the perception of the individual as the root cause of social problems. A typical example of this paradigm in the United States is the Charity Organization Movement headed by M. Richmond, and in Russia the short-lived Society for Visiting the Poor in St. Petersburg, created in 1846 at the initiative of Prince V.F. Odoevsky.
All four windows of this diagram serve as an illustration of the complex dialectical processes of the development of social scientific thought and social practice. There can be many such examples, since social work as a practical activity, as a branch of scientific knowledge and as an academic discipline was and is polyparadigmatic, multifunctional.
The concept of "social work" appeared at the end of the 19th century. in the most industrially developed countries. However, as a social institution and profession, this concept began to be perceived gradually throughout the twentieth century, and for the first time in this meaning it was applied in North America and in countries Western Europe.
The profession "social worker" acquired its social status first in the USA, then in Western Europe, although the first specialized educational institutions that began training professional social workers were created first in the Netherlands (1910), and then in the USA, Great Britain and Germany. ... In the period between the First and Second World Wars, educational institutions were created in the countries of Latin America and the British Commonwealth; after the Second World War, schools of social work were opened in many countries of Asia, the Near and Middle East, in Eastern Europe and, somewhat later, in African countries.
There are tens of hundreds of higher schools of social work and specialized university departments in the world that train professionals for the social sphere. Thus, only in 20 Western European countries there are over 500 educational institutions providing education in the field of social work. In most countries, this education is funded by the state, but there are also many private educational institutions, for example, there are more than 120 of them in Italy and France alone. In some countries, the private nature of social work schools is due to their belonging to a particular religious denomination, for example, in Portugal, Spain and In Latin American countries, the number of schools belonging to the Roman Catholic Church significantly exceeds the number of secular educational institutions.
The largest number of new educational institutions abroad were opened in the 1960s, when social work developed especially rapidly. This period was characterized by an intensification of industrial development, an accelerated process of urbanization and population displacement. At the same time, significant changes took place within the framework of the institution of the family. During this time, many national and international associations involved in social work were created, professional journals and specialized publications began to be published, and an international code of ethics for the social worker was developed. In many countries of Europe and America, along with the conduct of state social and political events, new systems of social services have been created, opportunities for providing assistance to children have been expanded, and a network of medical and rehabilitation institutions for persons with disabilities has been created.
Social work as part of social well-being can be defined as organized action by volunteers or government agencies to prevent social problems, mitigate their impact, or help solve existing social problems, or actions to improve the well-being of individuals, groups and communities ...
Social work is internally contradictory: on the one hand, it is designed to existentially help the individual to become a subject of social life, to promote its individualization, using personal and social resources, and on the other hand, as a social institution, it must fulfill the social order of the state and maintain social order in society.
In the domestic literature covering foreign experience, it is customary to mention various organizational models of social work and contrast two of them - American and European.
Differences in the implementation of this concept are mainly determined by the degree of state participation in the activities of social services, social services, which are the basis of the social welfare system. The social welfare system is often presented as a tool for the redistribution of social wealth to ensure equal access to public goods. As practice shows, this is not true - except for Sweden, perhaps, there is not a single country where this is actually done. In the past 20 years, the social policy of the majority Western countries, started by R. Reagan in the USA and M. Thatcher in Great Britain, is intended to either maintain the same level or even increase the gap between the rich and the poor.
The direction of the social welfare system depends to a large extent on traditions. For example, the traditions of individualism and their antipodes, the traditions of cooperation, have given rise to various social welfare systems in the United States and Sweden. Traditions of nepotism and family ties are present in most social welfare systems, but in some countries, especially in developing countries (Iran, China, India), they are determined in the organization of social support.
In all countries of the world, with a few exceptions (Sweden, Finland, Iceland), the social service system is funded practically on a leftover basis, as well as international assistance programs for underdeveloped countries.
At present, in many countries a mixed model of social welfare is used: in Germany, France, Sweden, Canada, Brazil, state, non-governmental, non-profit and private social services function, complementing each other; in the United States and the United Kingdom, priority in social services has been given to public, private and commercial social services, which have grown steadily in recent years.
International experience in social work convincingly shows that all countries are characterized by common strategic problems social development, solved in each country in different ways, as well as that the existing systems of social welfare, an essential part of which is social work, have significantly improved the quality of life of people.
More on topic 21.1. Social work abroad:
- 21.4. The main directions of practical social work abroad
- A. Psychiatric Social Work Mary Edwards, Master of Social Work
- CHAPTER 14. EXPERIENCE OF WORK OF TRANSPORT FORWARDING FIRMS ABROAD, THEIR ROLE IN ORGANIZATION OF LOGISTICS SYSTEMS
- Chapter I GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE CONCEPT OF SOCIAL RIGHTS, SOCIAL LEGISLATION AND SOCIAL WORK
- PROTECTION OF FACILITIES FOR INDIVIDUALIZATION OF RUSSIAN CIVIL TRAFFIC PARTICIPANTS AND PRODUCTS (WORKS, SERVICES) PRODUCED BY THEM ABROAD
The main problems of the periodization of the history of social work are associated with the starting point of the practice of public assistance, the dynamics of changing concepts, the specifics of the historical space, the process underlying this historical matrix, defining the subject specifics of historical knowledge. The process underlying various models of support and protection of some layers of society to others, as we see it, is a process of help and mutual assistance in a cultural and historical community. Each stage of changing the paradigm of assistance and mutual assistance is associated with a change in the subject and object, support institutions, and the ideology of assistance. So, in modern literature there are five periods in the history of social work abroad15:
1. The archaic period of charity (before the formation of the first slave states at the end of the 3rd millennium - the first half of the 2nd millennium BC).
II. Philanthropic period (approximately up to the 5th century AD).
III. The period of public (communal, church) charity (until the beginning of the 16th century).
IV. The period of state charity (until the turn of the 19th-20th centuries). V. The period of social work (continuing at the present time). In Russia, the periodization of the history of social work has its own specifics and looks as follows: Archaic period (before the formation of the Kiev principality and the baptism of Rus in the 9th-10th centuries). Tribal and communal forms of assistance and mutual assistance among the Slavs before the X to help members of their community. The most common forms of assistance to poor fellow villagers were feeding at home (those who were being taken care of spent the whole day in one house, moving on to the next in another) and almsgiving (but in the villages there was little money and they served food and clothing most of all). The period of public (communal, church) charity (10th - early 16th centuries). It is characterized by the absence of a state system of social assistance to the population. The predominance of church charity. The most common form of help is charity. Uncontrolled begging leads to the formation of professional begging.
The period of church and state charity (XVI - XVII centuries). Gradually, the first closed institutions began to form, the regulation of work with the beggar was laid. The period of state charity (XVIII - early XX centuries). Formation of a system of state social assistance to the population. The system of state charity was established during the reign of Peter 1. In the second half of the 18th century, caring for socially unprotected categories of the population was recognized as an indispensable duty of the state. An increase in the public activity of citizens was also facilitated by the "City Regulation" adopted in 1785.
It established such estates as the clergy, merchants, bourgeoisie and peasantry, which were supposed to show concern for the disabled representatives of their class. the rapid growth of capitalism determines the development of the charity of merchants and entrepreneurs. Explosive growth of charitable motives. At this time, the transition from voluntary to professional assistance is also formalized. The first courses in public charity are being opened, and international relations are being established. The period of social planning (1917-1991). There is a reform of the charity system. Some forms of private and public charity were taken over by the social security system, others were forgotten (no social work with prisoners was carried out at all). The Ministry of Social Security pursued a centralized policy in the field of pensions, support for disabled people, single and large mothers, and children without parents. During this period, it was believed that there were no parasites or beggars in the country. The period of social work (since the 1990s). The destruction of established social and economic ties, price liberalization, unemployment lead to an aggravation of social problems. Short-term programs appear: cash subsidies to the poor, humanitarian aid. A system of assistance to those in need is being formed, but its work is not debugged and is not clear to many. Therefore, it is important to study how these problems were solved in our country, as well as in other countries.
1. Determine the main stages of the formation and development of social work with a family of "risk groups" abroad.
2. Describe the main stages of the formation and development of social work with a family of "risk groups" abroad.
In modern literature, five periods can be distinguished in the history of social work abroad:
1. The archaic period of charity (before the formation of the first slave states at the end of the 3rd millennium - the first half of the 2nd millennium BC).
2. Philanthropic period (approximately up to the 5th century AD).
3. The period of public (communal, church) charity (until the beginning of the 16th century).
4. The period of state charity (until the turn of the 19th-20th centuries).
5. The period of social work (continuing at present).
When talking about social work abroad, they usually mean Western European countries, the United States and Canada. However, in certain forms, in different or similar methods, with different returns and effectiveness, social work is carried out in all countries.
Only from the end of the XIX - beginning of the XX century. social work is formed as a type of professional activity. The official recognition of social work as a profession, specialty, the introduction of the position of a social worker in official state documents was carried out in different countries at different times. The study of foreign experience in social work involves the use of a number of methods. Among them, one can single out both general (historical, system analysis, comparison, etc.) and more specific (survey, observation, document analysis, etc.) methods. The historical method allows us to compare how the process of the formation and development of charity in various countries went on, how professional social work was born and developed. The comparative method allows you to select objects of comparison, including countries, taking into account their level of socio-political and socio-economic development. On this basis, one can distinguish between capitalist and non-capitalist countries.
The systemic method allows one to study foreign experience of social work as an integral system, which includes such elements (components) as objects and subjects, content, means, management, functions and goals of social work. And in this case, a comparative analysis of both the social protection systems of individual countries as a whole and their individual most important components is possible. The interrelation of regional geography and subject-object, functional approaches is natural and inevitable. At the same time, each of them can prevail depending on the goals and objectives of the study of social work.
Social work with juvenile delinquents and adolescents at risk in the United States is based on a number of programs: basic programs the police; basic programs of juvenile courts; basic programs of schools. The latter are divided into two groups: programs for normal and special schools, designed for “difficult” and convicted teenagers. The many tasks and functions of the school social worker remain unchanged. It is best to characterize this profession, aimed at “the person in the environment,” by examining his activities in certain circumstances. Using a systematic approach to children, families and their social environment, the school social worker promotes change in all areas of the child's and his family's life. The 19th century is the century of the beginning of social work in Germany. The industrialization of the country contributed to the formation and development of social work, since the latter is associated with a sharp impoverishment of the families of workers, and, as a result, more people began to use social security. Here, special attention is paid to the family, in particular the "risk groups" of this category. Social work denotes only areas of activity with pedagogical goals, including work with adults, since upbringing and education are processes that accompany a person's entire life. Thus, social work is aimed at the practical solution of social problems, to help socially unprotected or vulnerable groups of the population. And social pedagogy rather implies prevention and out-of-school education. What they have in common is that both social pedagogy and social work are focused on changing a person's social behavior and social relations.
In the social sphere in Switzerland, much of the work done by social workers is directed towards pedagogical activities. Through these actions, the help that social workers provide helps their clients acquire personality traits that enable them to independently solve problems in their lives. That is why social work is to a large extent also pedagogical, it requires a variety of methods of education. The latter are closely intertwined with general methods of social work, and have even become their permanent component. It is always a series of specific actions (mental and practical), combined into groups - techniques that are performed in a specific sequence. Social workers design them, select them, and put them into practice. But at the same time, an indivisible part of each method is both the actions, techniques of the teacher (social worker), and the actions and reactions of their clients, regardless of who they are - children or adults. Thus, each method of upbringing is a single integrity in which specific actions and techniques of its two subjects are inextricably linked - the educator or social worker, on the one hand, or the pupil or client, on the other.
The most difficult problems facing families and children in developing countries stem from broader and pervasive problems: poverty, unemployment, landlessness, malnutrition, poor health, lack of education, poor sanitation, poor and overcrowded housing, high rates of morbidity and mortality. exploitation of child labor, etc.
In terms of eliminating these shortcomings in the country, the following was recommended: all workers employed by one problem family should agree on coordinating efforts or delegate full responsibility to someone else. However, the existing disunity of various social services hinders such a practical solution to the problem.
Therefore, caring for problem families is exactly the area in which a social worker could provide significant assistance, becoming a link not only between children and parents, but also between the family and its environment, especially social and educational services.
The first shoots of charitable activities, inspired by the ideas of mercy, humanity, humanity, go into the primitive communal system. This feature of assistance fully applies to the development of a system of social assistance to families abroad.
So, even Charles Darwin noted that man has retained from remote times a kind of instinctive love and sympathy for his relatives. And the English researcher of Australian Aboriginal life F. Rose says: "When a man brought a large animal, it was cooked and divided among all members of the production group, which could consist of several families, thus, a wider circle of relatives received meat food."
It can be assumed that the community has gradually formed other institutions to support people within its clan, communal space. Initially, perhaps, these were purely economic motives, but they arose in the systemic connections of intracommunal relations. So, even at the stage of the primitive commune, connections arose between members of different communities - gift exchange (or potlatch). A gift was a transfer of things from the ownership of one subject to the ownership of another and necessarily implied a gift.
Almost in all ancient societies there was a social institution "potlach" - the American social anthropologist Franz Boas, who studied the life of the North American Indians, defined this term as a "system of exchange of gifts", the same institution existed in the Slavic tribes. This is an example of a universal gift system that combines the ambition of the giver and the recipient. The system is quite simple: every gift must be returned to the donor in some form. This rule underlies all social relationships. This form of peaceful redistribution of property and natural products acted as a mechanism of economic balance in situations of social and economic inequality. The donation institution was associated with the emergence of surplus products.
Since, due to the underdevelopment of economic relations and the preservation of primitive communal traditions, the surplus could not be turned into treasures, public opinion forced their owners to distribute these surpluses to their fellow tribesmen. The reason for this could be the construction of a new house, birth, death, commemoration, etc.
The ancient Egyptians had a concept of mercy as selflessness and helping those in need. Written sources on Ancient Egypt brought to us the words of the grandee Piopinakht: "I gave bread to the hungry, clothed the naked", and the "Teaching of Ptahotep" says: "Do not be greedy in relation to your relatives, the pleas of the meek are more powerful than strength." The ancient Egyptians already have a concept of mercy - "help" and "selflessness." The ideas of mercy, mutual support, charitable activities were developed in the spiritual culture of the ancient world.
The Catholic Church, which took shape after the division of Christianity into Western and Eastern in 1054, has accumulated a great experience of charitable and charitable work, which in the West is usually called caritative activity. Parishes, monasteries, monastic orders, charitable centers, and an extensive network of various lay organizations have been and are engaged in matters of mercy and charity in Catholicism.
The Catholic Church is organically linked with the concept of salvation - by performing various kinds of "good deeds" for the benefit of the poor, the poor, the suffering. In Catholic literature, merciful acts are usually divided into two directions - material and spiritual.
Further development of the theory and practice of charity takes place under the direct leadership of the Roman Catholic Church, right up to the Reformation in Western Europe.
By the 17th century, the church had lost its position as the only benefactor, the Western European world returned to the ideas of Plato and Aristotle. Civil society takes on the responsibility of helping all those in need, the ideology of Christian charity has been replaced by the ideas of social engineering, although church-Christian charity as an institution of support still continues to operate.
This transition from church to state charity was caused by many reasons, the most important of which were:
a) the bankruptcy of the medieval system of uncontrolled distribution of alms, which led to the formation of professional begging;
b) complication of the social organization of society;
c) the transition from a subsistence economy to a monetary one.
All these reasons have caused the need for scientific and organizational assistance from the state, and since the 19th century, searches and approaches to solving the most important social problems have been carried out.
In parallel with the state system of charity for those in need, a system of charitable institutions was formed, aimed at providing, first of all, individual assistance to clients. So, in 1866 in Stockholm the organization of "open charity" - "Public Union of Patronage" was created.
In 1869, a Charitable Society was founded in London to coordinate the assistance provided (a central directory of applicants for assistance was compiled; those seeking assistance were associated with organizations that could provide it).
Similar organizations are being created in other countries of the world. By the end of the 19th century, in many countries there were public organizations to help various categories of those in need, incl. families of "risk groups", various forms of charity of individuals and organizations, as well as charitable activities of the church.
At the turn of the XIX and XX centuries. in many European countries (Great Britain, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden and France), as well as the United States, social work emerged as a type of professional activity, which developed along with charitable organizations. This stage in the development of European and American civilization is characterized by the fact that, along with repression, the mechanism of social maneuvering through the adoption of social legislation and the establishment of social institutions aimed at creating a system of social support are included.
Debt of mercy is a fundamental principle of all Judeo-Christian religions. Its origins can be found in the Old Testament. God called for justice for the poor — they should be given what they lack — and compassion for them — compassion should give them relief. In the subsequent teachings of Christ and his disciples, the manifestation of mercy became an expression of selflessness, which was seen as a characteristic feature of human brotherhood before God. Whether charitable activities were confined to certain sects or extended to the world at large, the virtue of mercy became the cornerstone of the Jewish and Christian religions. These values gave Western man the opportunity to substantiate and organize his human impulses and even gave rise to good impulses.
Of course, one of the roots of social work in the United States is to be found here. Whatever social work is based on (on religious convictions or on the principles of humanism), its main goal - to provide assistance to those who need it - is rooted in the Judeo-Christian commandments. More specifically, most modern forms of social work have a predominantly religious origin: in the church program, in the church-inspired social movement, or in the individual manifestations of Christian and Jewish lay clergy who follow the call of their conscience.
One of the first and most effective figures in the field of social work for the poor (including families at risk) was the Uniate priest Joseph Tuckerman. His attempts to improve the living conditions of this category of citizens were made at the beginning of the 19th century. by his own projects and ultimately by organizing a Relief Society for more than half a century, they determined the direction of American social work.
In 1874, the National Conference of Philanthropy and Transformation brought together the forerunners of future professional social work and laid the theoretical foundations for social security. The conference was convened at the initiative of the charity and transformation councils of several states. The Soviets usually supported local almshouses, and in especially difficult and hopeless cases were forced to deal with relations with state authorities, as well as financial issues. The councils also decided which social institutions and programs the legislators should support.
In 1880, organizations of charity and transformation, which arose in a number of large, progressively developing cities, were included in the National Conference of Philanthropy and Transformation. The heads of these societies were active in local volunteer charitable associations, embodying the principle of "position obliges".
The main problem that increasingly arises during this period was associated with the personality of the needy. Approaches to the personality of the needy were formed in close connection with the existing practice of assistance. One can observe how a specific vision of a person in society is outlined, associated with his real needs and the needs of society on the basis of social and legal norms. This is how a “person in need” appears in scientific knowledge, and, consequently, specific problems and other knowledge about a person begin to take shape. Moreover, a characteristic feature of the new thinking is the fact that the person in need is considered not only in the context of social problems, but also inseparably from the method of assistance. The objective factors that can be of decisive importance for the client in changing the life scenario are highlighted: gender, age, marital status, health status. Various combinations of these factors give an idea of the characteristics of the subjects who need assistance. Only an individual who is unable to help himself can become an object of help.
When developing approaches to providing assistance, much attention was paid to the study of the social situation of the needy. At the center were questions of his living conditions: living, rent, health and other problems. Thus, approaches to the problems of social assistance are gradually beginning to form in the aspect of not only their operational, but also long-term tasks, and this required certain methods of transferring the accumulated experience, methods of generalizing the knowledge that was accumulated in the practical activities of volunteers, setting promising tasks for further development of social assistance.
All this was solved by Mary Richmond, a famous researcher of social problems, who laid the foundations for the future theory and practice of social work as a new profession and scientific knowledge. The starting point of liberal scholars was not the development of a better political economy that could solve social problems, but the idea that prior aid practices were erroneous and self-defeating. They called their concept scientific philanthropy, or scientific philanthropy.
So, professional social work got its start in the movement of propagandists of scientific philanthropy, or scientific philanthropy at the end of the 19th century. They critically reviewed the policies of various organizations and programs called at the time "philanthropy and transformation", as well as their management, in other words, the activities of local public and private agencies and state institutions.
The history of social security in the United States demonstrates the increasing role of both public and private agencies. You can analyze this general trend over three periods:
a) Period 1: 1900-1930, when the trend was at the level of local governments, state governments and local private institutions organized under the auspices of the Public Fund.
b) period 2: 1930-1968, when the federal government took important initiatives in the area of social security. During this period, the role of the federal government in social welfare increased significantly. The federal government has taken a number of measures to develop the social security system for the needy, disabled people, and new programs have been implemented that affect the areas of employment, civil rights, etc.
c) 3rd period: starting from 1968, when the movement towards the "welfare state" was replaced by the policy of conservatism. The federal government continued to target local programs, providing the local government with federal funds to meet community development needs, workforce training, transportation, education, and a strong political role. The main goal of politics is to create a more rationally organized society, where everyone will share benefits, the sources of which should be federal and local authorities and wealthy citizens. Under this approach, social security remains a national concern, but access to and expansion is limited. Most other social needs must be met first by the family, then by charities, corporations and companies, and jointly by state and local governments.
A distinctive feature of the social safety net in the United States is decentralization. This is manifested in the presence and implementation of various social programs at different levels: federal, state, local. The advantages of this system are that it allows you to fully and quickly realize the social needs of people in almost every region of the country. Since 1935, in the United States, the Social Security Act established such types of insurance as old-age pensions, health insurance for persons aged 65 and over.
Food aid is mainly provided through the provision of food stamps to those in need, which are provided to them free of charge or at reduced prices.
Conclusions on paragraph 1.2:
1. The formation and development of social work abroad has passed its own special stages: the archaic period of charity; philanthropic period; the period of public (communal, church) charity (until the beginning of the 16th century); the period of state charity (until the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries); the period of social work that continues to the present.
2. Today, practical social work is a complex of methods and skills based on various knowledge and theories. At the same time, in each certain period, its own social issues arise, even if it was possible to resolve the old ones.
3. It should be noted that each decade requires its own approach to the problems of society. The needs of society are one of the main objects of activity of social workers, while, as the horizons of social workers expand and their role increases, the boundaries of their activities also expand, covering an ever wider range of problems of society.