are traditionally divided into three large branches: east, west and south. This is the largest ethno-linguistic group in Europe. The Eastern Slavs are represented by three peoples: Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians. The western branch includes Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Slovins, Koshubs, Lusatians, etc. The southern Slavs include Serbs, Bulgarians, Croats, Macedonians, etc. The total number of all Slavs is about three hundred million.
The historical regions of residence of the Slavs are the eastern and southern and central parts of Europe. Modern representatives of the Slavic ethnos inhabit most of the Eurasian continent up to Kamchatka. Slavs also live in Western Europe, USA, Canada and other countries. By religion, the majority of Slavs are Christians, Orthodox or Catholics.
East Slavs
There is very little reliable information about the origin and settlement of the East Slavic tribes in the prehistoric period. It is known that approximately in the fifth - seventh centuries, the Eastern Slavs settled the territory of the Dnieper basin, and then spread to the upper Volga in the east and the southern coast of the Baltic in the northeast.
Most researchers believe that by the ninth - tenth centuries, various tribal unions united into an integral Old Russian ethnos. It was he who formed the basis of the Old Russian state.
Most of the people of the people adhere to the Roman Catholic faith. However, there are Lutherans and Orthodox Christians among the Poles.
Slavic peoples today
When starting a conversation about the Eastern Slavs, it is very difficult to be unambiguous. There are practically no sources that tell about the Slavs in antiquity. Many historians come to the opinion that the process of the origin of the Slavs began in the second millennium BC. It is also believed that the Slavs are a separate part of the Indo-European community.
But the region where the ancestral home of the ancient Slavs was located has not yet been determined. Historians and archaeologists continue to debate where the Slavs came from. Most often it is argued, and Byzantine sources say about this, that the Eastern Slavs already in the middle of the 5th century BC lived in the territory of Central and Eastern Europe. It is also generally accepted that they were divided into three groups:
The Veneds (lived in the Vistula River basin) - Western Slavs.
The Sklavins (lived between the upper reaches of the Vistula, Danube and Dniester) are the southern Slavs.
Anty (lived between the Dnieper and Dniester) - Eastern Slavs.
All historical sources characterize the ancient Slavs as people with will and love for freedom, characterized by temperament, strong character, endurance, courage, solidarity. They were hospitable to strangers, had pagan polytheism and thoughtful rituals. Initially, there was no particular fragmentation among the Slavs, since the tribal unions had similar language, customs and laws.
Territories and tribes of the Eastern Slavs
An important question is how the development of new territories by the Slavs and their resettlement in general took place. There are two main theories of the appearance of the Eastern Slavs in Eastern Europe.
One of them was put forward by the famous Soviet historian, academician B. A. Rybakov. He believed that the Slavs originally lived on the East European Plain. But the famous historians of the XIX century S. M. Soloviev and V. O. Klyuchevsky believed that the Slavs moved from the territories near the Danube.
The final settlement of the Slavic tribes looked like this:
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Tribes |
Places of resettlement |
Cities |
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The most numerous tribe that settled on the banks of the Dnieper and south of Kiev |
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Slovenian Ilmen |
Settlement around Novgorod, Ladoga and Lake Peipsi |
Novgorod, Ladoga |
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North of the Western Dvina and the upper Volga |
Polotsk, Smolensk |
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Polochans |
South of the Western Dvina |
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Dregovichi |
Between the upper reaches of the Neman and the Dnieper, along the Pripyat river |
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Drevlyans |
South of the Pripyat River |
Iskorosten |
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Volynians |
They settled south of the Drevlyans, at the headwaters of the Vistula |
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White Croats |
The westernmost tribe, settled between the Dniester and Vistula rivers |
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Lived east of the white Croats |
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Territory between Prut and Dniester |
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Between the Dniester and the Southern Bug |
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Northerners |
Territories along the Desna river |
Chernihiv |
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Radimichi |
They settled between the Dnieper and Desna. In 885 they joined the Old Russian state |
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Along the sources of the Oka and Don |
Activities of the Eastern Slavs
Agriculture, which was associated with the characteristics of local soils, must be attributed to the main occupations of the Eastern Slavs. Arable farming was widespread in the steppe regions, and slash-and-burn agriculture was practiced in the forests. Arable land was quickly depleted, and the Slavs moved to new territories. Such farming required a lot of labor, even small plots were difficult to cultivate, and the harsh continental climate did not allow relying on high yields.
Nevertheless, even in such conditions, the Slavs sowed several varieties of wheat and barley, millet, rye, oats, buckwheat, lentils, peas, hemp, and flax. Turnips, beets, radishes, onions, garlic, and cabbage were grown in the gardens.
Bread was the staple food. The ancient Slavs called him "zhito", which was associated with the Slavic word "live".
Livestock was raised in Slavic farms: cows, horses, sheep. Trades were of great help: hunting, fishing and beekeeping (collecting wild honey). The fur trade has become widespread. The fact that the Eastern Slavs settled along the banks of rivers and lakes contributed to the emergence of shipping, trade and various crafts that provide products for exchange. Trade routes also contributed to the emergence of large cities and tribal centers.
Social structure and tribal unions
Initially, the Eastern Slavs lived in tribal communities, later they were united into tribes. The development of production, the use of draft power (horses and oxen) contributed to the fact that even a small family could cultivate their allotment. Family ties began to weaken, families began to settle separately and plow new plots of land on their own.
The community remained, but now it included not only relatives, but also neighbors. Each family had its own piece of land to cultivate, its own implements of production and the harvested crop. Private property appeared, but it did not extend to forests, meadows, rivers and lakes. The Slavs used these benefits together.
In the neighboring community, the property status of different families was no longer the same. The best lands began to be concentrated in the hands of elders and military leaders, and they also got most of the spoils from military campaigns.
At the head of the Slavic tribes, wealthy leaders-princes began to appear. They had their own armed detachments - squads, and they also collected tribute from the population under their control. The collection of tribute was called polyudye.
The 6th century is characterized by the unification of Slavic tribes into unions. The most powerful princes in military terms led them. Around these princes, the local nobility gradually strengthened.
One of such tribal unions, as historians believe, was the unification of the Slavs around the Ros (or Rus) tribe, who lived on the Ros River (a tributary of the Dnieper). Later, according to one of the theories of the origin of the Slavs, this name was transferred to all the Eastern Slavs, who received the general name "Rus", and the whole territory became the Russian land, or Rus.
Neighbors of the Eastern Slavs
In the 1st millennium BC in the Northern Black Sea region, the neighbors of the Slavs were the Cimmerians, but after a few centuries they were ousted by the Scythians, who on these lands founded their own state - the Scythian kingdom. Later, the Sarmatians came from the east to the Don and the Northern Black Sea region.
During the Great Migration of Nations, the East German tribes of the Goths passed through these lands, then the Huns. All this movement was accompanied by plunder and destruction, which contributed to the resettlement of the Slavs to the north.
Another factor in the resettlement and formation of the Slavic tribes was the Turks. It was they who formed the Türkic Kaganate on the vast territory from Mongolia to the Volga.
The movement of various neighbors in the southern lands contributed to the fact that the eastern Slavs occupied territories dominated by forest-steppe and swamps. Here communities were created that were more reliably protected from alien raids.
In the VI-IX centuries, the lands of the Eastern Slavs were located from the Oka to the Carpathians and from the Middle Dnieper to the Neva.
Nomad raids
The movement of nomads created a constant danger for the Eastern Slavs. Nomads seized bread, livestock, and burned houses. Men, women and children were taken into slavery. All this required the Slavs to be in constant readiness to repel raids. Every Slavic man was also a part-time warrior. Sometimes the land was plowed with armed forces. History shows that the Slavs successfully coped with the constant onslaught of nomadic tribes and defended their independence.
Customs and beliefs of the Eastern Slavs
The Eastern Slavs were pagans who deified the forces of nature. They worshiped the elements, believed in kinship with various animals, made sacrifices. The Slavs had a clear annual cycle of agricultural holidays in honor of the sun and the change of seasons. All ceremonies were aimed at ensuring high yields, as well as the health of people and livestock. The Eastern Slavs did not have a single idea of God.
The ancient Slavs did not have temples. All ceremonies were carried out at stone idols, in groves, in glades and in other places revered by them as sacred. We must not forget that all the heroes of fairytale Russian folklore come from that time. Goblin, brownie, mermaids, mermaids, and other characters were well known to the Eastern Slavs.
In the divine pantheon of the Eastern Slavs, the following gods occupied the leading places. Dazhbog is the god of the Sun, sunlight and fertility, Svarog is the blacksmith god (according to some sources, the supreme god of the Slavs), Stribog is the god of wind and air, Mokosh is a female goddess, Perun is the god of lightning and war. A special place was given to the god of earth and fertility Veles.
The main pagan priests of the Eastern Slavs were the Magi. They performed all the rituals in the sanctuaries, turned to the gods with various requests. The Magi made various male and female amulets with different spell symbols.
Paganism was a clear reflection of the occupations of the Slavs. It was the admiration for the elements and everything connected with it that determined the attitude of the Slavs to agriculture as the main way of life.
Over time, the myths and meanings of pagan culture began to be forgotten, but much has survived to this day in folk art, customs, and traditions.
Slavic peoples
The origin of the term "Slavs", which has attracted great public interest in recent years, is very complex and confusing. The definition of the Slavs as an ethno-confessional community, due to the very large territory occupied by the Slavs, is often difficult, and the use of the concept of "Slavic community" for political purposes over the centuries has caused a serious distortion of the picture of real relationships between Slavic peoples.
The origin of the term "Slavs" itself is unknown to modern science. Presumably, it goes back to a certain common Indo-European root, the semantic content of which is the concept of "man", "people". There are also two theories, one of which derives Latin names Sclavi, Stlavi, Sklaveni from the end of the names "-slav", which, in turn, is associated with the word "glory". Another theory connects the name "Slavs" with the term "word", citing in confirmation the presence of the Russian word "Germans", derived from the word "dumb". Both of these theories, however, are refuted by almost all modern linguists, who claim that the suffix "-Yanin" unambiguously indicates belonging to a certain area. Since the area called "Slav" is unknown in history, the origin of the name of the Slavs remains unclear.
The basic knowledge available to modern science about the ancient Slavs is based either on the data of archaeological excavations (which in themselves do not give any theoretical knowledge), or on the basis of chronicles, as a rule, known not in their original form, but in the form of later lists, descriptions and interpretations. It is obvious that such factual material is completely insufficient for any serious theoretical constructions. Sources of information about the history of the Slavs are discussed below, as well as in the chapters "History" and "Linguistics", but it should be immediately noted that any research in the field of life, everyday life and religion of the ancient Slavs cannot claim anything more than a hypothetical model.
It should also be noted that in the science of the XIX-XX centuries. there was a serious divergence in views on the history of the Slavs between Russian and foreign researchers. On the one hand, it was caused by the special political relations of Russia with other Slavic states, the sharply increased influence of Russia on European politics and the need for a historical (or pseudo-historical) substantiation of this policy, as well as a backlash to it, including on the part of openly fascist ethnographers. theorists (for example, Ratzel). On the other hand, there were (and are) fundamental differences between the scientific and methodological schools of Russia (especially Soviet) and Western countries. The observed discrepancy could not but be influenced by religious moments - the claims of Russian Orthodoxy for a special and exclusive role in the world Christian process, rooted in the history of the baptism of Russia, also demanded a certain revision of some views on the history of the Slavs.
In the concept of "Slavs", certain peoples are often included with a certain degree of convention. A number of nationalities have undergone such significant changes in their history that they can be called Slavic only with great reservations. Many peoples, mainly on the borders of the traditional Slavic settlement, have signs of both the Slavs and their neighbors, which requires the introduction of the concept “Marginal Slavs”. These peoples definitely include the Dakorumians, Albanians and Illyrians, Summer Slavs.
Most of the Slavic population, having experienced numerous historical vicissitudes, mixed with other peoples in one way or another. Many of these processes have already taken place in modern times; Thus, the Russian settlers in Transbaikalia, mixing with the local Buryat population, gave rise to a new community known as the Chaldons. By and large, it makes sense to deduce the concept "Mesoslavians" in relation to peoples with a direct genetic link only with the Wends, Antes and Sklavens.
It is necessary to use the linguistic method in identifying the Slavs, as suggested by a number of researchers, with extreme caution. There are many examples of such inconsistencies or syncretism in the linguistics of some peoples; Thus, the Polabian and Kashubian Slavs de facto speak German, and many Balkan peoples have changed their original language beyond recognition several times in the last one and a half millennia.
Unfortunately, such a valuable research method as anthropological is practically inapplicable to the Slavs, since a single anthropological type characteristic of the entire habitat of the Slavs has never been formed. The traditional everyday anthropological characteristics of the Slavs refer mainly to the northern and eastern Slavs, who over the centuries assimilated with the Balts and Scandinavians, and cannot be attributed to the Eastern and even more so to the southern Slavs. Moreover, as a result of significant external influences from, in particular, Muslim conquerors, the anthropological characteristics of not only the Slavs, but also all the inhabitants of Europe changed significantly. For example, the indigenous inhabitants of the Apennine Peninsula during the heyday of the Roman Empire had an appearance characteristic of the inhabitants of Central Russia in the 19th century: blond curly hair, blue eyes and rounded faces.
As mentioned above, information about the Proto-Slavs is known to us exclusively from ancient, and later - Byzantine sources of the beginning of the 1st millennium AD. The Greeks and Romans gave completely arbitrary names to the Proto-Slavic peoples, referring them to the terrain, appearance or combat characteristics of the tribes. As a result, there is a certain confusion and redundancy in the names of the Proto-Slavic peoples. At the same time, however, in the Roman Empire, the Slavic tribes were collectively called the terms Stavani, Stlavani, Suoveni, Slavi, Slavini, Sklavini, having obviously a common origin, however, leaving a wide scope for reasoning about the original meaning of this word, as already mentioned above.
Modern ethnography conventionally divides the Slavs of modern times into three groups:
Eastern, which includes Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians; some researchers single out only the Russian nation, which has three branches: Great Russian, Little Russian and Belarusian;
Western, which includes Poles, Czechs, Slovaks and Lusatians;
Southern, which includes Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Macedonians, Bosnians, Montenegrins.
It is easy to see that this division corresponds rather to linguistic differences between peoples than ethnographic and anthropological ones; Thus, the division of the main population of the former Russian Empire into Russians and Ukrainians is very controversial, and the unification of the Cossacks, Galicians, Eastern Poles, Northern Moldovans and Hutsuls into one nationality is more related to politics than to science.
Unfortunately, based on the foregoing, a researcher of Slavic communities can hardly be based on a different research method and the classification that follows from it than the linguistic one. However, with all the richness and effectiveness of linguistic methods, in the historical aspect they are highly susceptible to external influences, and, as a consequence, in the historical perspective, they may turn out to be unreliable.
Of course, the main ethnographic group of the Eastern Slavs are the so-called Russians, at least because of its numbers. However, in relation to the Russians, we can speak only in a generalizing sense, since the Russian nation is a very bizarre synthesis of small ethnographic groups and nationalities.
Three ethnic elements took part in the formation of the Russian nation: Slavic, Finnish and Tatar-Mongolian. While affirming this, we, however, cannot say for sure what the original East Slavic type was. A similar uncertainty is observed in relation to the Finns, who are united into one group only due to a certain proximity of the languages of the Baltic Finns, Lapps, Livs, Estonians and Magyars proper. Even less obvious is the genetic origin of the Tatar-Mongols, which, as you know, have a rather distant relationship to the modern Mongols, and even more so to the Tatars.
A number of researchers believe that the social elite of ancient Russia, which gave the name to the whole people, was a certain people of the Rus, who by the middle of the 10th century. subjugated Slovenian, Polyan and part of the Krivichi. There are, however, significant differences in hypotheses about the origin and the very fact of the existence of the Rus. The Norman origin of the Rus is assumed to be from the Scandinavian tribes of the period of the Viking expansion. This hypothesis was described as early as the 18th century, but was received with hostility by the patriotic part of Russian scientists, headed by Lomonosov. At present, the Norman hypothesis is viewed in the West as basic, in Russia - as probable.
The Slavic hypothesis of the origin of the Rus was formulated by Lomonosov and Tatishchev in opposition to the Norman hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, the Rus originate from the Middle Dnieper region and are identified with the glades. Many archaeological finds in southern Russia have been fitted to this hypothesis, which had official status in the USSR.
The Indo-Iranian hypothesis assumes the origin of the Rus from the Sarmatian tribes of the Roxalans or Rosomon, mentioned by ancient authors, and the name of the people from the term ruksi- "light". This hypothesis does not stand up to criticism, first of all, due to the dolichocephalous skulls inherent in the burials of that time, which is inherent only in northern peoples.
There is a persistent (and not only in everyday life) belief that the formation of the Russian nation was influenced by a certain nation called the Scythians. Meanwhile, in the scientific sense, this term has no right to exist, since the concept of "Scythians" is no less generalized than "Europeans" and includes dozens, if not hundreds of nomadic peoples of Turkic, Aryan and Iranian origin. Naturally, these nomadic peoples, to one degree or another, had a certain influence on the formation of the Eastern and Southern Slavs, but it is completely wrong to consider this influence as determining (or critical).
As the Eastern Slavs spread, they mixed not only with the Finns and Tatars, but also, somewhat later, with the Germans.
The main ethnographic group of modern Ukraine is the so-called Little Russians, living on the territory of the Middle Dnieper and Slobozhanshchina, also called Cherkasy. There are also two ethnographic groups: Carpathian (Boyko, Hutsuls, Lemko) and Polesie (Litvin, Polishchuk). The formation of the Little Russian (Ukrainian) nationality took place in the XII-XV centuries. based on the southwestern part of the population of Kievan Rus and genetically differed little from the indigenous Russian nation that had formed by the time of the baptism of Rus. In the future, there was a partial assimilation of a part of the Little Russians with the Hungarians, Lithuanians, Poles, Tatars and Romanians.
Belarusians, who call themselves so by the geographical term "Belaya Rus", represent a complex synthesis of Dregovichi, Radimichi and partly Vyatichi with Poles and Lithuanians. Initially, until the 16th century, the term "White Russia" was applied exclusively to the Vitebsk region and north-eastern Mogilev region, while the western part of the modern Minsk and Vitebsk regions, together with the territory of the present Grodno region, were called "Black Russia", and the southern part of modern Belarus - Polesie. These areas much later became part of "Belaya Rus". Subsequently, the Belarusians absorbed the Polotsk Krivichi, and some of them were pushed back to the Pskov and Tver lands. The Russian name for the Belarusian-Ukrainian mixed population is Polishchuks, Litvins, Rusyns, Ruthenians.
Polabian Slavs(Vendians) - the indigenous Slavic population of the north, north-west and east of the territory occupied by modern Germany. The Polabian Slavs include three tribal unions: Lyutichi (Velet or Veltsy), Bodrici (Obodrit, Rereki or Rarogi), and Lusatian (Lusatian Serbs or Sorbs). Currently, the entire Polabian population is fully Germanic.
Luzhich residents(Lusatian Serbs, Sorbs, Vendians, Serbs) - the indigenous Mesoslavian population, lives in the territory of Lusatia - the former Slavic regions, now located in Germany. They originate from the Polabian Slavs occupied in the 10th century. German feudal lords.
Extremely southern Slavs, conditionally united under the name "Bulgarians" are seven ethnographic groups: Dobrudzhantsi, Khrtsoi, Balkandzhii, Thracians, Ruptsi, Macedontsi, Shopi. These groups differ significantly not only in language, but also in customs, social structure and culture in general, and the final formation of a single Bulgarian community has not been completed even in our time.
Initially, the Bulgarians lived on the Don, when the Khazars, after moving to the west, founded a large kingdom on the lower Volga. Under pressure from the Khazars, part of the Bulgarians moved to the lower Danube, forming modern Bulgaria, and the other part to the middle Volga, where they subsequently mixed with the Russians.
Balkan Bulgarians mingled with the local Thracians; in modern Bulgaria, elements of Thracian culture can be traced south of the Balkan Range. With the expansion of the First Bulgarian Kingdom, new tribes entered the generalized people of the Bulgarians. A significant part of the Bulgarians assimilated with the Turks during the 15th-19th centuries.
Croats- a group of southern Slavs (self-name - hrvati). The ancestors of the Croats are the Kachichi, Shubichi, Svachichi, Magorovichi, Croats tribes, who moved together with other Slavic tribes to the Balkans in the 6th-7th centuries, and then settled in the north of the Dalmatian coast, in southern Istria, between the Sava and Drava rivers, in the north of Bosnia ...
The Croatians themselves, which make up the backbone of the Croatian group, are most closely related to the Slavonians.
In 806 the Croats fell under the rule of Thraconia, in 864 - Byzantium, in 1075 they formed their own kingdom.
At the end of XI - beginning of XII centuries. most of the Croatian lands were incorporated into the Hungarian kingdom for a long time, as a result of which there was a significant assimilation with the Hungarians. In the middle of the 15th century. Venice (back in the XI century seized part of Dalmatia) took possession of the Croatian Primorye (with the exception of Dubrovnik). In 1527, Croatian gained independence, falling under the rule of the Habsburgs.
In 1592 part of the Croatian kingdom was conquered by the Turks. To protect against the Ottomans, the Military Border was created; its inhabitants, the Granichars, are Croats, Slavonians and Serb refugees.
In 1699, Turkey ceded the captured part to Austria along with other lands in the Karlovytsky Peace Treaty. In 1809-1813. Croatian was annexed to the Illyrian provinces, ceded to Napoleon I. From 1849 to 1868. it constituted, together with Slavonia, the coastal region and Fiume, an independent crown land, in 1868 reunited with Hungary, and in 1881 the Slovak border region was annexed to the latter.
A small group of South Slavs - Illyrians, the later inhabitants of ancient Illyria, located west of Thessaly and Macedonia and east of Italy and Rhetia up to the river Istra to the north. The most significant of the Illyrian tribes are the Dalmatians, Liburnians, Istras, Yapods, Pannons, Desitiates, Pirusta, Dicioni, Dardans, Ardiei, Taulantii, Plerai, Yapigi, Messapi.
At the beginning of the III century. BC e. The Illyrians underwent Celtic influence, resulting in the formation of a group of Illyro-Celtic tribes. As a result of the Illyrian Wars with Rome, the Illyrians underwent rapid Romanization, with the result that their language disappeared.
The Illyrians have modern origins Albanians and dalmatians.
In formation Albanians(self-name shchiptar, known in Italy as arbreshes, in Greece as arvanites) was attended by the tribes of the Illyrians and Thracians, and also influenced by the influence of Rome and Byzantium. The community of Albanians was formed relatively late, in the 15th century, but was subjected to the strongest influence of the Ottoman rule, which destroyed economic ties between the communities. At the end of the 18th century. formed two main ethnic groups of the Albanians: Gegs and Longs.
Romanians(Dakorumians), who until the XII century were a shepherd mountain people who did not have a stable place of residence, are not purely Slavs. Genetically, they are a mixture of Dacians, Illyrians, Romans and South Slavs.
Arumans(Aromanians, Tsintsars, Kutsovlakhs) are descendants of the ancient Romanized population of Moesia. With a high degree of probability, the ancestors of the Arumans until the 9th-10th centuries lived in the northeast of the Balkan Peninsula and are not an autochthonous population on the territory of their present residence, i.e. in Albania and Greece. Linguistic analysis shows almost complete identity of the vocabulary of the Arumanians and the Dacorumians, which indicates that these two peoples were in close contact for a long time. Byzantine sources also testify to the resettlement of the Arumans.
Origin Meglen Romanian not fully understood. There is no doubt that they belong to the eastern part of the Romanians, which was subject to the long-term influence of the Dacorumans, and are not an autochthonous population in the places of modern residence, i.e. in Greece.
Istrorumans represent the western part of the Romanians, currently living in small numbers in the eastern part of the Istrian peninsula.
Origin Gagauz, people living in almost all Slavic and neighboring countries (mainly in Bessarabia), it is very controversial. According to one of the widespread versions, this Orthodox nationality, speaking the specific Gagauz language of the Turkic group, represents the Turkic Bulgarians who mixed with the Polovtsy of the southern Russian steppes.
Southwestern Slavs, currently united under the code name "Serbs"(self-name - srbi), as well as isolating from them Montenegrins and Bosnians, represent the assimilated descendants of the Serbs proper, Duklyans, Tervunians, Konavlyans, Zakhlumyan, Narechans, who occupied a significant part of the territory in the basin of the southern tributaries of the Sava and Danube, Dinarskie mountains, southern. part of the Adriatic coast. Modern southwestern Slavs are divided into regional ethnic groups: Shumadians, Uzhicans, Moravians, Machvans, Kosovans, Sremtsy, Banacans.
Bosniaks(Bosans, self-name - Muslims) live in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In fact, they are Serbs who mixed with Croats and converted to Islam during the Ottoman occupation. The Turks, Arabs and Kurds who moved to Bosnia and Herzegovina mingled with the Bosnians.
Montenegrins(self-name - "crnogortsi") live in Montenegro and Albania, genetically differ little from the Serbs. Unlike most of the Balkan countries, Montenegro actively resisted the Ottoman yoke, as a result of which it gained independence in 1796. As a result, the level of Turkish assimilation of Montenegrins is minimal.
The center of settlement of the southwestern Slavs is the historical region of Raska, which unites the basins of the Drina, Lim, Piva, Tara, Ibar, Western Morava rivers, where in the second half of the VIII century. an early state was formed. In the middle of the IX century. a Serbian principality was created; in the X-XI centuries. the center of political life moved either to the south-west of Rashka, to Duklya, Travunia, Zahumye, then again to Rashka. Then, in the late XIV - early XV centuries, Serbia entered the Ottoman Empire.
Western Slavs known by their modern name "Slovaks"(self-name - Slovak), on the territory of modern Slovakia began to prevail from the VI century. AD Moving from the southeast, the Slovaks partially absorbed the former Celtic, Germanic, and then the Avar population. The southern regions of settlement of Slovaks in the 7th century probably belonged to the borders of the Samo state. In the IX century. along the course of the Vag and Nitra, the first tribal principality of the early Slovaks arose - the Nitran, or principality of Pribina, which around 833 joined the Moravian principality - the core of the future Great Moravian state. At the end of the IX century. The Great Moravian principality disintegrated under the onslaught of the Hungarians, after which its eastern regions by the XII century. became part of Hungary, and later Austria-Hungary.
The term "Slovaks" appeared in the middle of the 15th century; earlier the inhabitants of this territory were called "Slovenia", "Slovenka".
The second group of Western Slavs - Poles, formed as a result of the unification of the western shy; Slavic tribes Polyans, Slzan, Vislyan, Mazovshan, Pomoryan. Until the end of the 19th century. a single Polish nation did not exist: the Poles were divided into several large ethnic groups, differing in dialects and some ethnographic characteristics: in the west - the Great Polyans (to whom the Kuyavians belonged), the Lenchitsans and the Sieradzyans; in the south - Malopolyans, whose group included gurals (the population of mountainous regions), Krakow and Sandomirians; in Silesia - Slenzans (Silesians, Silesians, among whom Poles were distinguished, Silesian gurals, etc.); in the northeast - the Mazurians (they included the Kurpi) and the Warmaki; on the coast of the Baltic Sea - the Pomorians, and in Pomorie the Kashubians were especially prominent, retaining the specifics of their language and culture.
The third group of Western Slavs - Czechs(self-name - scales). The Slavs as part of the tribes (Czechs, Croats, Luchans, Zlichans, Dechans, Pshovans, Litomers, Chebans, Glomachs) became the predominant population on the territory of modern Bohemia in the 6th-7th centuries, assimilating the remnants of the Celtic and Germanic population.
In the IX century. Czech Republic was part of the Great Moravian state. At the end of the 9th - beginning of the 10th centuries. the Czech (Prague) principality was formed, in the X century. which included Moravia in its lands. From the second half of the XII century. Czech Republic became part of the Holy Roman Empire; then German colonization took place on the Czech lands, in 1526 the Habsburg rule was established.
At the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. the revival of Czech self-consciousness began, which ended with the disintegration of Austria-Hungary in 1918, the formation of the national state of Czechoslovakia, which in 1993 disintegrated into the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
As part of modern Bohemia, the population of the Czech Republic proper and the historical region of Moravia stands out, where regional groups of Goraks, Moravian Slovaks, Moravian Vlachs and Ganaks are preserved.
Summer-Slavs considered the youngest branch of the North European Aryans. They live east of the middle Vistula and have significant anthropological differences from the Lithuanians living in the same area. According to a number of researchers, the Summer Slavs, having mixed with the Finns, reached the middle Main and Inna, and only later were they partially ousted and partially assimilated by the Germanic tribes.
An intermediate nationality between the southwestern and western Slavs - Slovenes, currently occupying the extreme northwest of the Balkan Peninsula, from the headwaters of the Sava and Drava rivers to the eastern Alps and the Adriatic coast up to the Friuli Valley, as well as in the Middle Danube and Lower Pannonia. This territory was occupied by them during the mass migration of Slavic tribes to the Balkans in the 6th-7th centuries, forming two Slovenian regions - the Alpine (Quarantines) and Danube (Pannonian Slavs).
From the middle of the IX century. most of the Slovenian lands came under the rule of southern Germany, as a result of which Catholicism began to spread there.
In 1918, the kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was created under the general name of Yugoslavia.
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A large group of peoples in Europe, which arose from a common ancestor, is called the Slavs. The first mentions of the Proto-Indo-Europeans (the ancestors of the Slavs) date back to the second millennium BC. Today, the peoples of the Slavic group make up about three hundred and fifty million people from the population of the whole world. The Slavs are peoples with an unusually rich and fascinating history.
The Slavs at the beginning of the last century settled in the territories of modern Europe and Russia. They split into several branches and ethnic groups. For example, the Western Slavs are the people of the Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia. But the eastern ones are from Belarus, Ukraine and the Russian Federation. The southern Slavs include the inhabitants of Bulgaria, Serbia, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro and other states.
It is believed that the ancestor of the Slavs were Indo-Europeans, from whom they subsequently separated. Today, much is known about the origin of the Slavs, about their settlement, way of life, culture, and the creation of states. But still, many facts about who the Slavs are, remain controversial even among eminent historians.
Of course, the Slavs have similar facial features and body structures. A whole science is devoted to this - the anthropology of the Slavs. But, on the other hand, as a result of interbreeding with other peoples over the course of many centuries, its own characteristics have appeared.
There are many versions about the origin of the word "Slavs". Someone thinks that it comes from the word "glorious", someone - from the words "rumor, fame."
About Russians
Who are the Russians? The conventional wisdom is that this is a branch of the Eastern Slavs, the main population of modern Russia. The Russians appeared as a result of the unification of many tribes in the distant twelfth century. Then the Old Russian nationality was formed, then the Old Russian state appeared.
The relationship between the Russians and the Slavs can be easily traced in the similarity of the language with the peoples of this group. In addition, numerous sources (written, archaeological) testify to a common origin. One of the proofs is the legendary chronicle of Nestor "The Tale of Bygone Years".
Several millennia have passed since the emergence of Russia and statehood. During this time, the Russians became Christians (in the tenth century thanks to Vladimir Svyatoslavovich), Peter the Great made a mighty empire out of the state and changed the chronology. Alexander II abolished serfdom. The end of Tsarist Russia has come. The Russians survived two world wars and perestroika. The Russians have had dozens of bloody wars.
Time is running. And the situation has been changing radically lately. Previously, the Slavic peoples treated each other like brothers, supported and helped the countries of the former USSR. Today, a wall of misunderstanding, aggression and conflicts has emerged between some countries. But do not forget that we are all Slavs, which means that we are open, kind and broad-minded!
The Slavs are the largest linguistic and cultural community of the peoples of Europe. There is no consensus among scientists about the origin of this name. For the first time ethnonym( 1 } "Slavs" are found among the Byzantine authors of the 7th century. in the form of "sklavina". Some linguists consider it the self-name of the Slavs and raise it to the concept of "word": "those who speak." This idea is rooted in antiquity. Many peoples considered themselves "speakers", and foreigners, whose language was incomprehensible, - "dumb". It is no accident that in Slavic languages one of the meanings of the word "German" is "dumb". According to another hypothesis, the name "sklavina" is associated with the Greek verb "kluxo" - "I wash" and the Latin cluo - "I cleanse". There are other, no less interesting points of view.
Scientists identify Eastern, Western and Southern Slavs ... The eastern ones include Russians (about 146 million people), Ukrainians (about 46 million) and Belarusians (about 10.5 million). These peoples inhabit the east of Europe and widely settled in Siberia. Western Slavs - Poles (about 44 million people), Czechs (about 11 million), Slovaks (about 6 million) and Lusatians (100 thousand). All of them are inhabitants of Eastern and Central Europe. South Slavic peoples live in the Balkans: Bulgarians (about 8.5 million people), Serbs (about 10 million), Croats (about 5.5 million), Slovenes (over 2 million), Bosnians (over 2 million), Montenegrins (about 620 thousand).
Slavic peoples are close in language and culture. By religion, the Slavs are Christians, excluding the Bosnians, who converted to Islam during the Ottoman rule. Believers Russians are mostly Orthodox, Poles are Catholics. But among the Ukrainians and Belarusians, there are many Orthodox and Catholics.
Slavs make up 85.5% of the population of Russia. Most of them are Russians - about 120 million people, or 81.5% of the country's inhabitants. Other Slavic peoples - Ukrainians, Belarusians, Poles - almost 6 million people. Bulgarians, Czechs, Slovaks, Croats also live in Russia. However, their number is very small - no more than 50 thousand people.
(1) Ethnonym (from the Greek "ethnos" - tribe, "people" and "onima" - "name") - the name of the people.
HOW THE EASTERN SLAVIAN PEOPLES ARISED
The ancestors of the Slavs were probably the Wends, who in the first centuries of the new era settled along the banks of the Vistula and 
Venedsky (now Gdansk) Gulf of the Baltic Sea. Byzantine authors of the 6th century. the name "sklaviny" appeared, but it was applied only to the tribes living west of the Dniester. To the east of this river were placed Antae, which many scientists consider the direct predecessors of the Eastern Slavs. After the 6th century. the name of the ants disappears, and the names of the East Slavic tribes become known: glade, drevlyans, vyatichi, radimichi, dregovichi,
Krivichi, etc.
Some historians see them as real tribes, others as a kind of "pre-nationality" or "proto-state". These communities were not "pure": they included elements that were racially, linguistically and culturally different. For example, in the East Slavic burials of the 10-11th centuries. found the remains of people belonging to at least six racial types, not only Caucasoid, but also Mongoloid.
In the 9-11 centuries. East Slavic tribes were united into one of the largest states of medieval Europe - Kievan Rus. It stretched from the lower reaches of the Danube in the south of the Ladoga and Onega lakes in the north, from the upper reaches of the Western Dvina in the west to the Volga-Oka interfluve in the east. Within these boundaries, a single ancient Russian nationality arose. She was neither Russian, nor Ukrainian, nor Belarusian - she can be called 
East Slavic. The consciousness of community and unity among the population of Kievan Rus was very strong. It was reflected in the annals and literary works telling about the defense of the homeland from the raids of nomads. In 988 the prince Vladimir I Svyatoslavovich
did Christianity
the state religion of Kievan Rus. Pagan idols were overthrown, and the Kievites were baptized in the Dnieper. The adoption of Christianity contributed to close cultural ties with Europe, the flourishing of ancient Russian art, and the spread of writing. The new religion was sometimes introduced by force. So, in Novgorod, half of the city was burned. The people said: " Confused ( 2
}
baptized the people with fire, and Dobrynya ( 3
}
- with a sword. "Under the outer cover of Christianity, a" dual faith "was established in Russia: for several centuries pagan traditions were preserved.
The unity of Kievan Rus was not strong, and by the end of the 12th century. the state split into independent principalities.
Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians as independent peoples developed, according to various estimates, in the 14-18 centuries.
Moscow state
- the center of education of the Russian people - at first it united the lands in the basins of the Upper Volga and Oka, then in the upper reaches of the Don and Dnieper; even later - the Pskov and Novgorod lands in the basin of the Northern Dvina and on the coast of the White Sea. 
Much more complicated was the fate of the descendants of those tribes who lived in the west of Kievan Rus. From 13-14 centuries. western districts pass under power of Lithuanian princes ... The state formation that emerged here was not easy: the political power was Lithuanian, and the cultural life was East Slavic. At the end of the 16th century. The Grand Duchy united with Poland ... The local population, first of all, the nobility, began to pollinate to one degree or another, but the East Slavic traditions were preserved among the peasants.
In the 16-17 centuries. two nationalities were formed on these lands - Ukrainians and Belarusians.
The population of the southern regions (the territory of modern Kiev, Poltava, Chernigov, Vinnitsa, Khmelnytsky, Ivano-Frankivsk, Lvov, Ternopil, Volyn, Rivne, Zhitomir, Chernivtsi regions, Transcarpathia) experienced a strong influence of the Turkic peoples, with whom they fought and traded. Namely, here it was like united people Ukrainians
... On the Polotsk-Minsk, Turovo-Pinsk and, possibly, in the Smolensk lands Belarusians were formed
... Their culture was influenced by Poles, Russians and Lithuanians. 
The languages, culture, historical destinies of the East Slavic peoples are close. Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians are well aware of this, they remember their common roots. The Russian-Belarusian closeness is especially pronounced.
{2 } Putyata is a Novgorod governor.
{3 } Dobrynya -educator and governor of Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich; princely governor in Novgorod.
U K R A I N C Y
The word "Ukrainians" first appeared at the end of the 12th century .. It denoted the inhabitants of the steppe "outskirts" of Russia, and by the 17th century. that is how they began to call mainly the population of the Middle Dnieper region.
Under the rule of Catholic Poland, Ukrainians, Orthodox by faith, endured religious oppression and therefore fled to Sloboda Ukraine ( 4 } .
Quite a few of them ended up in the Zaporizhzhya Sich - a kind of republic of the Ukrainian Cossacks. In 1654, the Left-Bank Ukraine united with Russia, gaining autonomy in its structure. However, in the second half of the 18th century, after the annexation of the Right-Bank Ukraine, the tsarist government sharply limited the independence of the Ukrainian lands and liquidated the Zaporozhye Sich.
After the Russian-Turkish warriors of the late 18th century. the Northern Black Sea region and the Azov region were annexed to Russia. New territories were named New Russia; they were inhabited mainly by Ukrainians. At the same time, Right-Bank Ukraine became part of the Russian Empire, and in the first third of the 19th century. - Bessarabia and the Danube estuary (Ukrainian colonies also appeared here).
Now, out of more than 45 million Ukrainians, more than 37 million live in Ukraine and over 4 million in Russia, where they are the country's second largest Slavic people. In Russia, Ukrainians live mainly in the Russian-Ukrainian borderlands, as well as in the central regions, in the Urals, in Western Siberia; there are many Ukrainians in the Far East. In mixed Russian-Ukrainian regions, they are often called crests - because of the traditional crest on their heads. At first, the nickname was considered offensive, but over time it became familiar and is used as a self-name. One of the ethnologists quotes the following statement from a resident of the Belgorod province: "We are Russians, only Ukrainians, turn them upside down." Indeed, in Russia there is a rapid assimilation of Ukrainians. In 1989, only 42% of Russian Ukrainians called Ukrainian their native language, while 16% spoke it even less. Most of all, city dwellers have become Russified; often only surnames speak of their Ukrainian roots: Bezborodko, Paley, Seroshapko, Kornienko, etc.
{4 } Slobodskaya Ukraine - modern Kharkov and part of Sumy, Donetsk and Lugansk regions.
TRADITIONS OF UKRAINIAN CULTURE
At the same time, many Ukrainians in Russia, even Russified to one degree or another, preserve some of the traditions of their native culture. Their houses in the villages are easily recognizable by clay coating of walls
... On the Ukrainian you can often see traditional shirt - with a straight collar cut and rich embroidery
... Of course, these days they dress in a modern urban style, but on holidays old people, and often young people, wear national clothes.
UKRAINIAN FOOD
Russian Ukrainians have well-preserved traditions of folk cuisine. Floury dishes and products are popular: 
round or oval yeast bread
("palyanitsa", "hlibina"), flat cakes ("cakes", "nalisniki"), pancakes, pancakes, pies, noodles, dumplings, dumplings with cottage cheese, potatoes, cherries
.
For Christmas and New Years they bake "kalach" , at the meeting of spring - "larks" , at the wedding - "bumps" etc. All kinds of porridge and a cross between porridge and soup - "kulish" from millet and potatoes, seasoned with onions and bacon. Of the soups, Ukrainians are the most borscht made from various vegetables and often cereals ; from dairy products - "varenets" (fermented baked milk) and "cheese" (salted cottage cheese).
Unlike Russians, Ukrainians call meat only pork ... Distributed cabbage rolls, jellied meat, homemade sausage stuffed with pork pieces .
Favorite drinks - herbal tea, dried fruit compote ("uzvar"), various types of kvass ; intoxicated - mash, mead, liqueurs and liqueurs .
Many Ukrainian dishes (borsch, dumplings, varenets, etc.) gained recognition from neighboring peoples, and the Ukrainians themselves borrowed such dishes and drinks as cabbage soup and koumiss.
UKRAINIAN CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS OF SPIRITUAL CULTURE
The family and social life of Russian Ukrainians is devoid of originality. He is ubiquitous in the urban way of life and is distinguished by democratic orders. One of the indicators of this is a large number of nationally mixed families: Ukrainian-Russian, Ukrainian-Belarusian, Ukrainian-Bashkir, etc. However, some customs are still alive today. For example, at a Ukrainian wedding in Russia you can find the Viti Gilze custom
- a branch or tree decorated with flowers and colored ribbons is stuck into the wedding loaf.
The traditions of the rich Ukrainian spiritual culture are partly preserved, in particular folk .Many of them are related to calendar and family holidays let's say christmas caroling ( 5 } , wedding glorification, etc. Ukrainians love songs , in particular, lyrical and comic, as well as (especially the Cossacks) military-historical.
The emergence of an independent Ukrainian state in the 90s. 20th century gave impetus to the revival of national identity not only in Ukraine itself, but also among Ukrainians in Russia. Cultural societies and folklore ensembles are being created.
{5 } Carols are ritual songs wishing health, well-being, etc.
B E L O R U S S
The third largest Slavic people of Russia are Belarusians. Belarusian lands became part of the Russian Empire at the end of the 17th century. Some scientists associate the name "Belaya Rus" with the light hair color and white clothes of the country's population. According to another theory, "White Russia" originally meant "free Russia, independent of the Tatars." In 1840, Nicholas I forbade the official use of the names "Belaya Rus", "Belorussia", "Belarusians": the latter became the population of the "Northwest Territory".
The Belarusians relatively late realized themselves as a special people. Only in the middle of the 19th century. the Belarusian intelligentsia put forward the idea of Belarusians as a separate people. However, in broad strata of the population, national identity was developed slowly and was finally formed only after the creation of in 1919 the Byelorussian SSR (since 1991 - the Republic of Belarus).
In Russia, Belarusians have long lived alongside Russians in the Smolensk and Pskov regions, as well as in Central Russia, the Volga region and Siberia, where they moved after the Russian-Polish war of the 17th century. and subsequent violent partitions of Poland. Many peasants and artisans left for Russia and voluntarily - because of the scarcity of Belarusian lands. Large communities of Belarusians were formed in Moscow and later in St. Petersburg.
In the 90s. 20th century about 1.2 million Belarusians lived in Russia. Most of them, especially the townspeople, became Russified. By 1989, only slightly more than 1/3 recognized the Belarusian language as their mother tongue. According to a sample survey conducted in St. Petersburg in 1992, 1/2 of the Belarusians surveyed identified themselves as people of Russian culture, 1/4 - mixed Russian-Belarusian and only about 10% - Belarusian. Russian Belarusians have a lot of nationally mixed families - with Russians, Ukrainians, Karelians.
BELARUSIAN CUISINE
In the everyday life of Russian Belarusians, little has remained of their traditional culture. The traditions of national cuisine are best preserved.
Belarusians love flour dishes - pancakes, pancakes, pies, they prepare various cereals and cereals, kulesh, oatmeal and pea jelly.
Although, as the Belarusians say, "usyamu galava is bread", the "second bread" is in great demand - potato ... In traditional cuisine, there are up to 200 dishes from it! Some dishes are supposed to be eaten not with bread, but with cold potatoes. Widespread potato fritters ("draniki"), potato casserole with bacon ("little rag"), crushed potato with lard or milk and eggs ("tavkanitsa", "bulbyanaya yachnya").
Favorite meat of Belarusians - pork .
One of the features of the kitchen is "bleached ", that is, dishes filled with milk, most often soups, and from vegetable dishes they prefer stew of rutabaga, pumpkin, carrot .
Belarusian folk art
You can hear their Belarusian folklore in everyday life "hairy" ( 6 } songs performed at Easter. Such Belarusian dances as "hussars", "myatselitsa", "kryzhachok" and others, accompanied by "choruses", are well-known.
In folk art, the traditions of patterned weaving and embroidery on bedspreads, wall rugs, tablecloths, and towels are best preserved. Most of the patterns are geometric or floral.
{6 )Name "volochechny "(rite, songs) is associated with the verb" to drag ", meaning" to go, drag, wander. " family well-being and a bountiful harvest.
P O L Y K I
About 100 thousand Poles live in Russia. Unlike Ukraine and Belarus, Poland does not have common borders with Russia, and therefore, there is no mixed settlement of Poles and Russians. Polish emigrants, as a rule, did not leave their homeland of their own free will. The tsarist government forcibly resettled them after the anti-Russian uprisings of the late 18-19th century. Some, in search of free land and a better life, voluntarily moved to Siberia. Most of the Russian Poles live in the Tomsk, Omsk and Irkutsk regions, in Altai and in both capitals.
There are many Poles among the Russian intelligentsia. Suffice it to mention K.E. Tsiolkovsky, geographer A.L. Chekanovsky, linguist and ethnographer E.K. Pekarsky, ethnographer V. Seroshevsky, artist K.S. Malevich, Marshal K.K. Rokossovsky. In the tsarist army, Poles made up more than 10% of the officer corps. In Russia, there were Polish cultural and educational organizations, and in 1917 territorial and cultural autonomy arose, liquidated by 1937. This intensified the Russification of the Poles: in 1989, less than 1/3 of Russian Poles called Polish their native language. In the 90s. the restoration of Polish cultural and educational organizations began.
Most Russian Poles live scattered, mostly in cities. Even those who consider themselves Poles by nationality have retained almost nothing of Polish everyday culture. This also applies to food, although some Polish dishes (for example, "bigos" - fresh or sauerkraut, stewed with meat or sausage) are widespread. Poles are distinguished by their religiosity, they strictly observe church rites. This trait has become a feature of national identity.